P/S 10 · Piaget, Kohlberg and attachment
Stages of Development
Interpret data on conservation, moral reasoning and attachment, and think about study design.
Passage
Developmental psychologists describe how thinking, moral reasoning and relationships change from infancy to adulthood. Jean Piaget proposed that children pass through four stages of cognitive development. In the sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years), infants learn through their senses and actions and come to understand that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen. In the preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years), children use symbols and language but have difficulty taking another person’s point of view and understanding conservation, which is the idea that quantities stay the same when their appearance changes. In the concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years), children can reason logically about concrete objects. In the formal operational stage (about 12 years and older), people can reason about abstract ideas and hypotheses.
Part 1. A researcher shows children from three age groups two identical glasses with the same amount of water. The child agrees that the amounts are equal. While the child watches, the water from one glass is poured into a taller, narrower glass. The child is then asked which glass has more water or whether the amounts are the same. A child is scored as passing the conservation task if he or she says that the amounts are the same and gives a reason that refers to the pouring or the shapes. Table 1 shows the percentage of children who passed.
Table 1. Percentage of children who passed the conservation task.
| Age group | Number of children | Passed (%) |
|---|---|---|
| 4–5 years | 40 | 10 |
| 6–7 years | 40 | 55 |
| 8–9 years | 40 | 90 |
Part 2. In a study of moral reasoning, an interviewer presents people with stories about moral dilemmas and asks them to explain what the main character should do and why. The reasons given are classified into three levels. At the preconventional level, people reason in terms of avoiding punishment or gaining rewards. At the conventional level, people refer to social approval, rules and laws. At the postconventional level, people refer to general ethical principles, such as justice and human rights, even when these conflict with a law. Table 2 shows the percentage of reasons at each level for three age groups, all interviewed in the same month.
Table 2. Level of moral reasoning (percentage of participants in each age group).
| Age group | Preconventional | Conventional | Postconventional |
|---|---|---|---|
| 8 years | 80 | 20 | 0 |
| 13 years | 30 | 60 | 10 |
| 20 years | 10 | 60 | 30 |
Part 3. In a third study, infants about 12 months old are observed with a caregiver in an unfamiliar room. The caregiver leaves for a short time and then returns. Observers rate how the infant behaves when the caregiver returns. Table 3 shows the percentage of infants with each pattern of response.
Table 3. Infant behavior when the caregiver returns.
| Pattern | Infant behavior on return of the caregiver | Percentage of infants |
|---|---|---|
| Secure | Is upset when the caregiver leaves, seeks contact on return and is soothed quickly | 65 |
| Avoidant | Shows little distress at the departure and ignores or avoids the caregiver on return | 20 |
| Ambivalent | Is very upset at the departure and is difficult to soothe, seeking contact but also resisting it | 10 |
| Disorganized | Shows confused or contradictory behavior on return | 5 |
Questions
Question 1 of 6
The increase in the percentage who pass the conservation task between ages 4–5 and 8–9 is best explained by:
The sensorimotor stage ends at about 2 years. These children are older.
Formal operations are not expected until about age 12.
Object permanence is acquired in infancy and is not lost.
Why the answer is what it is
Children in the preoperational stage tend to focus on one dimension (for example, the height of the water). By the concrete operational stage, they can consider height and width together and understand that quantity is conserved.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
Question 2 of 6
A child says that the tall, narrow glass has more water because the water is higher. This is an example of:
Abstract reasoning is a feature of formal operations. This child is reasoning from a perceptual feature.
Assimilation fits new information into an existing scheme without changing it. The error here is about attending to one feature.
Object permanence refers to knowing that objects continue to exist when out of sight.
Why the answer is what it is
A preoperational child tends to focus on the height of the water and to ignore the width of the glass. Focusing on a single feature of a situation is called centration.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
Question 3 of 6
A 13-year-old says that a man should not steal a drug, because ‘everyone would think badly of him and it is against the law.’ At which level of moral reasoning is this?
The reasoning mentions social disapproval and the law, which is a conventional rationale.
Postconventional reasoning refers to general ethical principles, even when they conflict with a law.
The sensorimotor stage is a Piagetian cognitive stage of infancy, not a level of moral reasoning.
Why the answer is what it is
Reasons based on how others will judge the person and on upholding rules and laws are typical of the conventional level.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
Question 4 of 6
What is a limitation of using the data in Table 2 to conclude that people’s moral reasoning changes as they age?
Table 2 describes three separate age groups interviewed in the same month, not repeated testing.
Large samples make comparisons easier. The problem is the design.
The levels are used to classify the reasons given in the interviews.
Why the answer is what it is
A cross-sectional design compares different people of different ages, so a cohort difference (people born at different times) could explain some of the differences. A longitudinal study that follows the same people would address this.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
Question 5 of 6
Which behavior in Table 3 shows that an infant uses the caregiver as a secure base?
This is the avoidant pattern, which is not an example of using the caregiver for comfort.
This is the ambivalent pattern, in which the infant wants contact but also resists it.
This is the disorganized pattern, in which responses are contradictory.
Why the answer is what it is
A securely attached infant protests when the caregiver leaves and is comforted when the caregiver returns, as if the caregiver provides a safe base. Most infants (65%) show this pattern.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
Question 6 of 6
A child who understands that a ball that rolled behind a couch still exists, but who cannot yet pass the conservation task, is most likely in which stage?
Formal operational reasoning develops later and involves abstract and hypothetical thinking.
Object permanence is the main achievement of the sensorimotor stage. A child who has achieved it but still fails conservation tasks has moved on to the next stage.
A child in this stage passes conservation tasks, as shown by the older children in Table 1.
Why the answer is what it is
Object permanence develops in the sensorimotor stage. Failing conservation tasks is characteristic of the preoperational stage that follows it, which lasts until about age 7.
Review: Foundational Psychologists · Cognition & Decision-Making · Social Interaction & Group Behavior
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